History Of Arabic Music Essays - Middle Eastern Music, Musicology

History of Arabic Music History of Arabic Music Arabic music is my favorite musical styling. Although I have come to enjoy classical and contemporary styling as well, Arabic music has almost an innate quality of enjoyment for me. Its songs speak of the life and culture of Arabic countries and its melody is not commonly heard on American radio stations. Its songs tell the story of the Arabic people, people who are similar to Americans but also different in many ways. The songs are a romantic and wonderful inspiration to me while living and studying in America. The tradition of Arabic music has been cultivated throughout Arab regions for thousands of years. Although it has undergone many changes over the centuries, it has retained certain distinctive traits. The Arabic music tradition developed in the courts of dynasties in the Islamic empire from the 7th century to the 13th century. It flourished during the Umayyad dynasty in the 7th century and 8th century in Syria. Great performers were drawn to Baghdad, now the capital of Iraq, under such rulers as Harun ar-Rashid, who was a patron of the musical arts during the late 700s.3 The cities of the Islamic empire, from Spain across North Africa and throughout the Middle East, boasted many fine musicians. These early musicians were often composers and poets as well as performers. Although the major writings on Arab music appeared after the spread of Islam in the beginning of the 7th century, the music tradition had already begun. Before the spread of Islam, Arab music incorporated music traditions of the Sassanid dynasty (224-641) in Persia and the early Byzantine empire (4th century to 6th century) and of sung poetry from the Arabian Peninsula.3 Arabic-speaking scholars also studied the treatises of ancient Greek philosophers on music. Music theorists of the 10th century and 11th century, such as al-Farabi and Avicenna, produced their own theories of music based on what they had learned from the Greeks and on the music of their own times. Greek works translated by the Arab scholars were later studied by European scientists and philosophers. Melody and Rhythm Arabic music is created using unharmonized melodic and rhythmic systems. Arabic melodies draw from a vast array of models, or melodic modes, known as maqamat. Arabic books on music include as many as 52 melodic modes, of which at least 12 are commonly used.3 These modes feature more tones than are present in the Western musical system, including notably smaller intervals that are sometimes called microtones, or half-flats and half-sharps. Arabic melodies frequently use the augmented second interval, an interval larger than those of most Western melodies.3 The sound of Arabic music is richly melodic and offers opportunity for subtle nuance and creative variation. The rhythmic structure of Arabic music is similarly complex. Rhythmic patterns have up to 48 beats and typically include several downbeats (called dums) as well as upbeats (called taks) and silences, or rests.3 To grasp a rhythmic mode, the listener must hear a relatively long pattern. Moreover, the performers do not simply play the pattern; they elaborate upon and ornament it. Often the pattern is recognizable by the arrangement of downbeats. In Arab tradition, good musicians offer something new in each performance by varying and improvising on known pieces or models in a fashion similar to that of jazz musicians. The inventions of musicians can be lengthy, extending ten-minute compositions into hour-long performances that bear only a skeletal resemblance to the models. The inventions of the musician traditionally depend upon the response of the audience. Listeners are expected to react during the performance, either verbally or with applause. Quiet is interpreted as disinterest or dislike. The audience members, in this tradition, are active participants in determining the length of the performance and in shaping the piece of music by encouraging musicians to either repeat a section of the piece or to move to the next section. Modern Era Born of the cultures of the Arab World stretching from Morocco in the west to Iraq in the east, Arabic music is becoming popular world-wide. It is made up of an astonishing variety of folk, classical, and popular musical traditions. Many of these have survived for centuries, reflecting the musical sensibilities of the ancient world as well as the Middle Ages. While each region within the Arab World has its distinctive styles, commonalities of instrumentation, modal structure, rhythmic patterns, performance techniques, and lyric content extend across the area, forming a fascinating weaving of artistic tradition that changes and evolves while remaining true to its ancient heritage. In the last decades a growing global audience has come to appreciate the richness of this music. The global

Common Muslim and Arab Stereotypes in TV and Film

Common Muslim and Arab Stereotypes in TV and Film Even before the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, Arab-Americans, Middle Easterners, and Muslims faced sweeping cultural and religious stereotypes. Hollywood films and television shows frequently depicted Arabs as villains, if not outright terrorists, and misogynistic brutes with backward and mysterious customs. Hollywood has largely portrayed Arabs as Muslims, overlooking the significant number of Christian Arabs in the United States and the Middle East. The media’s racial stereotyping of Middle Eastern people has allegedly produced unfortunate consequences, including hate crimes, racial profiling, discrimination, and bullying. Arabs in the Desert When Coca-Cola debuted a commercial during Super Bowl 2013 featuring Arabs riding camels in the desert, Arab-American groups werent pleased. This representation is largely outdated, much like Hollywood’s common portrayal of Native Americans as people in loincloths and war paint running through the plains. Camels and the desert can be found in the Middle East, but this portrayal has become stereotypical. In the Coca-Cola commercial, Arabs appear backward as they compete with Vegas showgirls and cowboys using more convenient forms of transportation to reach a giant bottle of Coke in the desert. â€Å"Why is it that Arabs are always shown as either oil-rich sheiks, terrorists, or belly dancers?† asked Warren David, president of the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, during a Reuters interview about the commercial. Arabs as Villains and Terrorists There is no shortage of Arab villains and terrorists in Hollywood films and television programs. When the blockbuster â€Å"True Lies† debuted in 1994, starring Arnold Schwarzenegger as a spy for a secret government agency, Arab-American advocacy groups staged protests in major cities, including New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco, because the film featured a fictional terrorist group called the â€Å"Crimson Jihad,† whose members, Arab-Americans complained, were portrayed as one-dimensionally sinister and anti-American. Ibrahim Hooper, then a spokesman for the Council on American-Islamic Relations, told The New York Times: â€Å"There is no clear motivation for their planting nuclear weapons. They are irrational, have an intense hatred for everything American, and that’s the stereotype you have for Muslims.† Arabs as Barbaric When Disney released its 1992 film â€Å"Aladdin,† Arab-American groups voiced outrage over the depiction of Arab characters. In the first minute, for example, the theme song declared that Aladdin hailed â€Å"from a faraway place, where the caravan camels roam, where they cut off your ear if they don’t like your face. Its barbaric, but hey, it’s home.† Disney changed the lyrics in the home video release after Arab-American groups blasted the original as stereotypical. But the song wasn’t the only problem advocacy groups had with the film. There was also a scene in which an Arab merchant intended to hack off the hand of a woman for stealing food for her starving child. Arab-American groups also took issue with the rendering of Middle Easterners in the film; many were drawn â€Å"with huge noses and sinister eyes,† The Seattle Times noted in 1993. Charles E. Butterworth, then a visiting professor of Middle East politics at Harvard University, told The Times that Westerners have stereotyped Arabs as barbaric since the Crusades. â€Å"These are the terrible people who captured Jerusalem and who had to be thrown out of the Holy City,† he said, adding that the stereotype seeped into Western culture over centuries and is found in Shakespeares works. Arab Women: Veils, Hijabs, and Belly Dancers Hollywood also has represented Arab women narrowly. For decades, women of Middle Eastern descent have been portrayed as scantily clad belly dancers and harem girls or as silent women shrouded in veils, similar to how Hollywood has portrayed Native American women as Indian princesses or squaws. The belly dancer and veiled female sexualize Arab women, according to the website Arab Stereotypes: â€Å"Veiled women and belly dancers are two sides of the same coin. On the one hand, belly dancers code Arab culture as exotic and sexually available. ... On the other hand, the veil has figured both as a site of intrigue and as the ultimate symbol of oppression.† Films such as Aladdin (2019), â€Å"Arabian Nights† (1942), and Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves (1944) are among a host of movies featuring Arab women as veiled dancers. Arabs as Muslims and Foreigners The media nearly always portray Arabs and Arab-Americans as Muslims, although most Arab-Americans identify as Christian and just 12 percent of the world’s Muslims are Arabs, according to PBS. In addition to being sweepingly identified as Muslims in film and television, Arabs are often presented as foreigners. The 2000 census (the latest for which data on the Arab-American population is available) found that nearly half of Arab-Americans were born in the U.S. and 75 percent speak English well, but Hollywood repeatedly portrays Arabs as heavily accented foreigners with strange customs. When not terrorists, Arab characters in films and television often are oil sheiks. Portrayals of Arabs born in the United States and working in mainstream professions, such as banking or teaching, remain rare. Resources and Further Reading: â€Å"Arab-Americans Protest True Lies.† New York Times, 16 July 1994. Scheinin, Richard. â€Å"‘Aladdin’ Politically Correct? Arabs, Muslims Say No Way ⠁  - Criticisms That Kid Movie Is Racist Takes Disney by Surprise.† Entertainment the Arts, Seattle Times, 14 Feb. 1994, 12:00 a.m. â€Å"Veils, Harems Belly Dancers.† Reclaiming Our Identity: Dismantling Arab Stereotypes, Arab American National Museum, 2011.

CRITICAL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

CRITICAL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES - Essay Example It is also important to have human skills in order to incorporate the views of other people and manage them well; this will also ensure that the people work towards a common goal within the organization (Alvesson et al., 2009, p. 200). Therefore, critical management is determined to harmonize the workplace, through ensuring that the employees and facilities are managed well and working conditions improved. In order to ascertain this, managers need to rely on management theory and practice in order to deal with the complexities and ambiguity of organizations. These management theories and practices deal with construction of models based on observations, to try and manage business activities (Carr, 2000, pp. 210). In addition, the practices of management also deals real life experiences of the manager within an organization. This paper therefore seeks to critically evaluate the impact of ambiguity, complexity, and uncertainty on how the organization is managed. Additionally, the paper will demonstrate a critical understanding of management practice and theory, ability to identify and evaluate vital assumptions in the ideology of management, and analyze and evaluate organization and management theory and appraise the application of management theory in organizational contemporary contexts. Management is a process of working with and through people. Organizations need effective management in order to maximize their production under the prevailing conditions of scarce resources. Managers need to shift their focus to the contemporary issues of organizations such as the ambiguity, uncertainty, and complexity of organizations. It is also important for upcoming managers to exhibit a critical understanding of management practice and theory. In addition, ability to identify and evaluate the major assumptions of management ideology and evaluating the theories of organization and management in its application to the wide range of contemporary contexts; will enable managers maximize the potential of their organizations in working under the uncertainties and complexities of organizations.. It is in this regard that this paper is written. Management and organization theory and practice concept Several theories of management and organization can be used in ascertaining effective management of organizations. These will help in solving the recurring issues, challenges and problems within the organization. According to Aven & Renn (2010, p. 190 100) among the effective management theories for effective management of organization’s uncertainties, ambiguity and complexity is the scientific management theory that was founded by Taylor; this theory states that management needs to ensure proper planning of organizational activities in order to achieve optimum productivity and efficiency. This productivity and efficiency can be realized when the management relates well with the employees who form major part of the organization. The theory also asserts that employees be trained using scientific methods in order to avoid conflict with the management. The graduate manager may also employ the bureaucratic approach as described by Max Weber in managing the mentioned uncertainty, ambiguity, and complexity of the organization. According to Alvesson et al., (2009) the bureaucratic approach by Max Weber, is vital in centralizing the structure of management. According to the theory, democracy should spearhead the practices within the organ

Trends in the workplace Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Trends in the workplace - Assignment Example It achieves this objective through career mapping, trainings, and performance management. The aim of this process is to impart the necessary skills to employees, for purposes of achieving efficiency in their work. Furthermore, the development of the human resource staff is a motivating factor that can improve the quality of work an individual does (Mondy and Noe, 2005). Evaluation, designing and implementation of compensation benefits is another important function of human resource management. This includes salaries and bonuses that employees get for their services to the organization. A fair and good remuneration package will most likely attract workers to the organization (Chandler, 2006). The organization will therefore have an opportunity to choose the best talents, from the high number of people who have applied in it (Mondy and Noe, 2005). Companies that do not pay their employees according to the living standards of the region will experience a high labor turnover. This in turn is expensive to the company, mainly because it will have to recruit employees again, which is an expensive process. Retention of workers is therefore an important strategy for an organization, and it cannot achieve this, with poor pay, and bonus system (Chandler, 2006). The employee-employer relationship is very important for the success of the organization. This is because the organization will manage to communicate its goals, aspirations, and mission to the employee. Furthermore, the employee will feel as if he or she is part of the organization, and hence work hard to achieve the objectives of the organization. Through compliance, collective bargaining, and a number of initiatives, human resource management is able to create a positive relationship between employees and the employer. Finally, risk management is another important function of human resource management. The HR

International Students challenges in the US Essay

International Students challenges in the US - Essay Example Most of the students especially those from Middle East can rarely spell even an English single sentence without faltering, becoming very difficult to communicate and relate with other students in class. They therefore ends forming the groups according to the language they understands promoting the negative art of discrimination. It even becomes more difficult for them to ask or even answer a question in class for fear of misunderstanding from their fellow students. â€Å"Jumping into these conversations is a challenge for some international students. They might be uncomfortable speaking English† (Lipson 31).Most of them got very funny accent such that whenever they say something the class busts into a laughter making them feel inferior in anything they do. Language barrier also creates a wall between those students and the Professor who they also fear speaking with considering he or she is the master. These students are forced to learn English as an additional unit so as to en hance their communication skills, and therefore ending up wasting time. This is the only solution in order to write and express their view points in term papers, class work and research. Others who have studied English before are always in a better position although some have to master English in order to learn the academic rules understood in USA (Lisbon 36). Getting used to the culture and beliefs in the new environment an issue affecting them. Religious and cultural beliefs differ from one country to another and an international student in US may encounter difficulties in the process of accepting the change. Take for example a Libyan male student who believes that women are tools of house chores forced to accept that the ratio of professionals’ jobs from men to women is 53:47.There are even other cultures which do not believe friendship between male and females yet in US it their culture. International student must couple with this new style so as to be on the

Behaviour Modification and Cognitive Processes of Learning

Behaviour Modification and Cognitive Processes of Learning Pillay Sheryl Amanda Ballen I will be discussing some important procedures which enable learning. Each and every human being learns any kind of behavior during their life span. There is no human being on earth who does not undergo the process of learning. There are various learning methods through which we obtain beliefs, approaches and skills (Skinner, 1971, cited in Ryckman,2013, p. 361) Here we shall discuss the principles of learning and their uses in daily life. I would like to also demonstrate how behavior modification compares with cognitive processes of learning. Learning What we mean when we say the word â€Å"learning†, we normally mean â€Å"thinking using the brain†. These concepts of learning are the central perspective in the Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT). Mental processes can be explained, as they are predisposed by both internal and external factors, which gradually bring about learning. Cognitive Learning Theory suggests that the different procedures regarding learning can be described by examining the mental processes first. It suggests that with actual cognitive processes, learning is simpler and new material can be placed in the memory for a long time. However, ineffective cognitive processes affect learning complications which can be seen in a person. Social Cognitive Theory (SLT) There are three variables in social cognitive theory, which are interconnected with each other, for learning to happen, which consist of: Personal factors Environmental factors Behavior factors An individual’s environmental interaction, beliefs, ideas and mental skills are influenced by outside factors such as a caring or uncaring parent, disturbing or healthy environment or a very hot or humid climate. The mental process in a person is affected by his behavior, and environmental interaction, which can also alter the way he thinks. One’s behavior can disturb and change the environment in which he or she lives in. Basic concepts of social learning are: Observational Learning Is a form of learning from other people, by means of observing their behavior in an effective way in order to gain knowledge and change behavior. Reproduction Is the method wherein there is a goal to successfully escalate the repeating of a behavior by means of changing the environment to a safer and more comfortable on , within reachable proximate, and to encourage him to remember the new information and behavior learned and to exercise them. Self-efficacy Is the way a person uses the newly learnt knowledge or behavior which he has learnt. Emotional coping is a good coping devices used against demanding environments and negative personal appearances can lead to operational learning, especially in adults Self – regulatory capability is the capability to regulator the behavior even within a negative environment. Classical and operant conditioning are two vital perceptions significant to behavioral psychology. While both result in learning, the procedure is quite different. To understand how each of these behavior modification methods can be used, it is also important to understand how classic conditioning and operant conditioning differ from one another. Classic Conditioning Was developed by the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov, classic conditioning is the first type of learning wherein an organism responds to an environmental stimulus. Pavlov (1927) observed that in classic conditioning, the stimulus (S) triggers the response (R) of an organism. Within the exposure of the organism to the stimulus, reflex(Hermans et.al., 2006, cited in Weiten, 2014, p. 232). The unconditioned stimulus (US) is the stimulus which leads to an observable response without training. The unconditioned response (UR) is the response brought about by the unconditioned stimulus. It is an automatic and normal behavior. The conditioned stimulus (CR) is a stimulus that is original and has no meaning to the subject. Through learning it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US) and brings about the conditioned response. The conditioned response (CR) is the behavior caused by the condition stimulus in response to the (CS). It is usually anticipation of the (US). General Observation My brother was in matric and my little sister was two years old when I observed my brother’s behavior. He would often get very frustrated with my little sister when he tried to study (US) in order for him to study he use to give her a chocolate (UR) and she would smile and leave him to study. The chocolate is a positive reinforcement. Now six months later he has completed his matric and when she goes into his room she expects chocolate (CR). Now that my brother do not give her chocolate, when she goes into his room she begins to cry, and mom would get angry at my brother for making her cry. Mom do not realize that my brother has created a (CR) in my little sister behavior, since mom does not allow her to eat chocolate. Operant Conditioning known as Instrumental Conditioning: Was established by B.F.Skinner . However Skinner was also greatly influenced by the works of Ivan Pavlov on the conditioning reflux. (Skinner, 1970, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 360). Operant conditioning tries to contradict the belief that internal thoughts and mere inspirations which brings about learning in a behavior. Skinner thought that only exterior causes of behavior must be considered (Skinner, 1953, p. 65)) The term â€Å"operant† was used by Skinner in order to give us a good suggestion of his theory and how he used it: (Skinner, 1953, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 365). Reinforcement: Is a procedure of increasing the frequency rate of a behavior by means of awarding a stimulus soon after the demonstration of the behavior. The event that strengthens the probability of the behavior to be recurring is called a reinforcer. According to Skinner, reinforcement can take two forms, which are called positive and negative reinforcement (Skinner, 1953, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 367). Positive Reinforcement: When my mom wanted me to do the dishes, she would say to me â€Å"if you do the dishes for me, for the week than I will take you out shopping on Saturday†. Naturally we would spend the day shopping and she would spoil me, but eventually without her asking me to do the dishes for her. I realized that she was tired after work and the least I could do was help her with the dishes. Negative reinforcement occurs when a reply is reinforced because it is followed by the elimination of an unfriendly stimulus. Example cleaning the house to get rid of the mess or wearing a safety belt whist driving to prevent an annoying sound (Skinner, 1953, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 367). Negative Reinforcement: I hated the fact that I needed to drive with my safety belt on, and I found that the annoying noise of the seatbelt would not stop until I buckled up which is an aversive stimulus since it encourage me to fasten my seat belt. Until I fasten the seatbelt, the annoying sound persisted I could not get rid of the aversive stimuli. Now days when I get into the car, the first thing I do is put my safety belt on. In both positive and negative reinforcement, behavior is increased, however negative reinforcement plays a key role in both escaping learning and avoidance learning (Skinner, 1953, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 367). In escape learning, a being obtain a response that decrease or ends some aversive stimulation example: my little sister wearing her shoes before going outside to play, this leads to: Avoidance learning in which an entity obtains a response that stops some aversive stimulation from happening example putting on shoes before you get an ammonia. Avoidance learning is a good way to see how classical conditioning and operant conditioning work together to regulate behavior. An example, shoes my sister needs to put on before she goes outside and play might become a classical conditioning (CS) that elicits a fear of wearing shoes in her. However the response of putting on her shoes is an operant behavior. This response is strengthened through negative reinforcement, because it reduces the person’s fear of getting sick. Thus in avoidance learning a fear response is acquired through classical conditioning and an avoidance response is maintained by operant conditioning. Punishment Is a process whereby a stimulus is used after the presentation of behavior and cause the decline in the possibility of the behavior to reoccur. In contrast to reinforcement there are also consequences that decrease a being’s leaning to make a specific response. Positive punishment: Is the accumulation of something which affects the decrease in repeating the behavior that was displayed? Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs (Skinner, 1953, cited inRyckman, 2013, p. 368). When I was younger my sister and I slept in the same room and we often fought with each other about who slept on the top of the double bunk. Until my father got angry one day and sent us both to the naughty corner for two whole hours, and whilst sitting alone it decreased our behavior and we never fought again with each other about sleeping arrangements. Negative Punishment: Decreases the behavior from occurring, it is removing pleasant stimulus when someone is not doing the appropriate behavior. Eating food was one of my difficulties, since I rather looked forward to the deserts during super time, so I use to waste my food. Dad took away my spending and said I needed to learn to appreciate and feel what poor kids are going through. He even took me to the orphanage and I felt so bad, now I know not to waste food since there are so many kids out there who do not have food. My view on wasting food has changed. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Is based on the work of Albert Bandura (1977). Bandura and his associates were able to exhibit through a variation of experimentations that the request of concerns was not necessary for learning to take place. Instead learning could happen through the simple procedure of observing someone else’s actions or behavior. This effort provided the basis for Bandura’s future work in social cognition ( Ohman Mineka, 2001, cited in Weiten, 2014, p. 252). Bandura expressed his findings in a four step design which includes a cognitive and an operant view of learning. Attention- to learn observation, you must pay attention to another person’s behavior and its environment. Retention- you may not have times to observe response for a long time. Hence the individual remembers what was noticed and must store a mental image of what he has witnessed in his memory. Reproduction- the action that the individual produces that is a replica of what was noticed. Motivation your motivation depends on whether you encounter the situation in which you believe that the response is likely to pay off for you (Weiten, 2013, p. 252). My eldest brother (fifteen years old) use to skip school and smoke cigarettes. Whilst my younger brother who was (twelve years old) at the time observed what he was doing. When my younger brother turned (fourteen) he stated smoking cigarettes too. Thereafter he started modelling my eldest brother’s behavior and he too started skipping school. Now both of them are addicted to smoking. I often hear both my brother’s saying that smoking is not good, yet they keep smoking. And when their friends come over, they smoke even worst. I cannot fully understand the need for their smoking. However I do know that it is not good for their health, it clogs their lungs and some people also dies of lung cancer, besides I hate the bad odor in there breathe. My eldest brother was a good athlete at college but these days he complains that he cannot run like he used to, because he suffers of short breath and he coughs a lot to. I constantly tell him to quit smoking and he would stop for a day or two, and he would become very frustrated and annoying to be around. Eventually I would say to him â€Å"you know, you should rather smoke because you are so annoying, your attitude really stinks† And he would say you know I cannot function without cigarettes it feels like my nerves are finished, I cannot even concentrate, I am trying to leave this addiction but it is not easy. Behavior Modification Is a therapeutic technique created by Skinner, a psychologist who is the â€Å"Father of Behaviorism.† Skinner established a theory of operant conditioning, whereby he states that all behavior is ruled by reinforcing and punishing stimuli. Behavior modification practices a planned approach that rewards wanted behavior and â€Å"punishes† unwanted behavior. This technique is used in therapy and is used in psychological settings. Behavior modification is now known as Applied behavior analysis (ABA) which is more logical (Kransner, 1970, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 375). How Behavior Modification is applied: Psychologists use behavior modification to treat disorders such as attention deficit disorder, autism etc. The basics of behavior modification are used to increase the desired behaviors in any specific person, regardless of functional level (Tanaka- Matsumi et al., 2002 cited in Corey2014, p. 254). For example, a person wants to quit smoking cigarettes; he may use behavioral methods to help attain those goals. Another example is, an individual who sees a shark and swims for his life, and he is not swimming fast because he is â€Å"scared.† Instead, he is swimming fast because he saw what happened to other’s who did not swim and who was eaten by the shark. The impulse to swim fast is a result of those that swam and did not live. In addition, the particular feeling of being â€Å"scared† is measured as a flight reflex, not a feeling. The heart races and adrenaline rises as the nervous system responds to the situation at hand. Hence, anything a person does can be directed to behavior modification. Reinforcement and Punishment The idea of reinforcement and punishment is often used in different ways, in behavior modification than in everyday linguistic. Whatever increases a behavior is a reflected reinforcement and whatever decreases the behavior is punishment. The complex part is that both reinforcement and punishment can have either a positive or negative outcome. Positive refers to whatever is added to the situation and negative is whatever is taken away from the situation (Watson Tharp, 1997, cited in Weiten, 2014, p. 260). Positive Reinforcement: When I was in school my mom would give me a huge hug and when I got really good marks she would reward me with presents for passing. Negative Reinforcement: My brother often did not do well at school, and he did not get any praises from my parents, instead my parents were disappointment and would often ground him. This is a negative reinforcement, because although he was not an academic student I feel my parents would still praise him and motivated him in whatever field he is good at. Punishment: Often my brother had to do the gardening for the duration of the school term in order for his grades to go up. This was dad’s way of punishing him positively. Mom use to take away his play station and his bicycle until his grades picked up. This was mom’s way of punishing him negatively (Weiten, 2014, p. 260). Behavior Modification in Everyday Life: According to Lazaras (1989) behavior modification may seem complicated, but in fact it is actually quite simple. If an individual is reinforced every single time he or she does something good, sooner or later the reinforcement will lose its power. When using this technique with general people, one should reinforce the desired outcome, with a consistency. Then as they start to respond, change your schedule of reinforcement to every third time, and they will do what you want. After a while, change it again to every fifth time until they do it automatically (Lazaras 1989 cited in Corey, 2014). Mom wanted dad to open the car door for her. When they went out shopping she carried all the bags and when she got to the car, dad noticed that her hands were filled and he opened the door for her. Once he opened the door, she looked at him in the eye and told him what an amazing person he is. After several times of her encouraging him to open the door, eventually he started opening the car door for her regularly. And once she noticed that he was opening the door for her she did not compliment him every time. However once in a while she would complement him. Conclusion Both cognitive processes and behavior modification has been used with good outcomes to help people with a wide variety of problems. These approaches makes use of tangible, involvements, because of the way problems are recognized .The major methods are logical and straightforward. References Corey, G. (2014). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy (SA ed.). USA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, Inc. Ryckman,R. M. (2013). Theories of Personality (10th, ed.). USA: International Edition, Cengage Learning. Corey, G. (1986).Theory and practice of group counselling and psychotherapy(3rd ed.). Monterey, CA Brooks/Cole. Weiten, W. (2014). Psychology Themes and Variations (SA. Ed.). Las Vegas, USA: Cengage Learning.

a farewell to arms Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"A writer’s job is to tell the truth† – Ernest Hemingway. This quote means that it is a writer’s job to convey some sort of truth or accuracy to the reader. I agree. This is shown in the novel, A Farewell to Arms, by Ernest Hemingway through the setting and characterization in the novel. It is also shown in the novel, To Kill A Mockingbird, by Harper Lee through the themes and setting of the novel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the war novel, A Farewell to Arms, Ernest Hemingway demonstrates that it is a writer’s job to convey some sort of truth to the reader through the setting of the novel. This novel takes place during a time of war and shows what war is like, realistically. For a war novel, there is not a lot of fighting but instead more of getting from one place to another and the situations that occur in the interim. This portrays a truth to the reader because it shows how war is in reality and that it is not all death and destruction. Hemingway expresses the emotions of the characters accurately for time of war and conditions or situations the characters are put into. The author shows us the characters interact with each other and how they deal with the war surrounding them. For example, in Book III of the novel, the priest says that people that summer finally realized the war and that people were gentler because they had been beaten. This, truthfully, shows how war affe cts people and their emotions because it shows how they are disappointed. Through the setting of...